On Tuesday, January 7, 2025, the azure sky and gleaming sun that are hallmarks of Los Angeles, California, were rapidly replaced by thick grey smoke swelling upwards from fast-moving fire within Pacific Palisades. Hours later, another blaze, called the Eaton Fire, began to consume huge swaths of Pasadena and Altadena.

Since then, the skies of Southern California have been crisscrossed by a dizzying number of firefighting aircraft: helicopters, propeller-driven water bombers, and even massive tanker jets. You may have seen and on social media, dropping orange slurry near homes or spraying buckets of ocean water on rising flames.

Aerial firefighters—the pilots, flight coordinators, and crew—have played a vital role in the battle against the worst fire season in Southern California history. As of publishing, —with a handful of smaller fires, like the Kenneth Fire and Hurst Fire breaking out as well. In total, these blazes have consumed 40,000 acres of land and 12,300 structures. The death toll of the fires, overall, has risen to 24.

șÚÁÏłÔčÏÍű spoke to aerial firefighters to understand how they have contributed to the lifesaving efforts across Southern California, and to understand why the blazes present such a challenge for crews both on the ground and in the skies.

“The Palisades and Eaton fires are in the top three worst fires I’ve worked in my 30-year career,” says fire captain and helicopter coordinator John Williamson with Cal Fire, the fire department of the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection.

The Importance of Aerial Firefighters

Aerial firefighters have the same job as ground-based firefighters, but aerial firefighters corral the flames from the sky. They work in tandem with ground crews to support their efforts by dropping thousands of gallons of fire retardant and water to critical fire areas with each fly by.

It’s a dangerous job. , there have been 14 fatal aerial firefighting aircraft crashes resulting in the deaths of 25 aerial firefighting crew members in the U.S. In contrast, not a single U.S. commercial passenger airline pilot has been killed in a flight crash since 2020.

There are more than 50 aerial firefighting aircraft assigned to the Los Angeles fires that come from several agencies. Some aircraft are from , the largest civil aerial firefighting fleet in the world with 60 rotary and fixed-wing aircraft. Others are from private companies like Montana-based . And others still have flown in from other fire departments across North America, including a crew fromÌęQuebec, Canada.

Aerial firefighting fleets vary in size. Cal Fire retains the likes of multiple 1,200-gallon-capable , 4,000-gallon-capable , , , and . Neptune Aviation owns nine , each of which can hold 3,000 gallons of fire retardant and four of which are currently assisting with the Los Angeles fires.

No matter the aircraft, Williamson, who’s currently in Los Angeles working the Palisades and Eaton fires, notes that aerial firefighters’ jobs are entirely to support the first responders on the ground.

In previous years, wintertime has been a quiet season for aerial firefighters, with most on vacation and many of the fleets put away for maintenance. But this is changing, due in part to a shift in climate and drier conditions yearround. Now, agencies like Cal Fire must be ready to battle wildfire at any moment.

“There is no longer a ‘fire season,’” says a spokesperson from Cal Fire. “It is now a ‘fire year.’”

The Santa Ana Winds

The nearly 100-mile-per-hour winds made the first evening of firefighting a biblical “man vs. wild” battle. The fires initially had to be fought almost entirely by groundcrews as the hurricane-force gusts made aerial firefighting unsafe and ineffective. These winds, known as the , are seasonal, strong winds that blow south into the Los Angeles area from the Mojave Desert. The Santa Ana Winds are known for fanning wildfire flames and causing a , which can make flying dangerous or impossible.

“These fires are significant because of the wind event that preceded them,” says Williamson. “The high winds spread the fires quickly and made it difficult for any aerial firefighting to occur in the initial hours
I hate to describe it this way, but everything leading up to these fires created the perfect storm.”

As the wind speeds decreased slightly on January 8, aerial firefighters took to the sky and began dropping thousands of gallons of fire retardant and water across the Palisades and Eaton fires.

But the wind has continued to create headaches. Williamson says that crews must assess wind gusts each day to make sure that it’s safe to fly—and to ensure that their drops of slurry or water are accurate.

“Additionally, the infrastructure here in Los Angeles presents a challenge with so many above-ground electrical wires and tall structures,” Williamson says. “Not every aerial firefighter assigned to these fires is from Los Angeles, so some are learning the terrain as they go.”

Aerial Firefighting Logistics

At the beginning of each day, aerial firefighters receive a morning briefing at their assigned air base before linking up with officials who coordinate helicopter flights or air attack routes. These specialists are like aerial firefighting air traffic control: they tell aerial firefighters where to fly and at what elevation in the firefighting airspace to best support ground crews.

The size and intensity of the Los Angeles fires means that the “stack,” or elevation layers of an airspace, in which the aerial firefighters fly is crowded and limited.

“The wind and the amount of aerial firefighters we have working on these fires has made the stacks complicated,” Williamson says. “We currently have a thousand feetÌęof elevation between each aircraft in a stack to give our crews some buffer, and we’ve been having to closely monitor where and how each aircraft in a stack goes about their jobs due to the high winds and terrain of these fires.”

For reference, are allowed to have 1,000 feet of stack between them when flying below 29,000 feet, and must have 2,000 feet of stack between them when above 29,000 feet.

Neptune Aviation’s Chief Pilot Eric Komberec says the Palisades and Eaton fires have been some of the most challenging to fight from the air.

“The urban interface and airspace concerns with so many other commercial airports in the [Los Angeles] area combined with the low moisture index and intense winds has made this a complicated fire for our aerial firefighters to tackle,” Komberec says. “There also aren’t any firebreaks due to the urban environment, so we have few ways to corral these fires. We have to attack them totally differently than we would a true wildland fire.”

Komberec notes that crews are accountable for their drops of fire retardant—which are determined by the pilot only through mental math and “eyeballing it.”

The crosswinds, he says, have made it difficult to maneuver planes and ensure an accurate drop of retardant. “We are held accountable for every drop of retardant we make,” Komberec says. “It’s not only extremely expensive, but can be dangerous when dropped on or near congested areas. Given the urban interface of this fire, we have to be extremely concerned with making sure we’re at the appropriate height and angle for a drop.”

The Mental Toll

A week of round-the-clock work has taken its toll on the aerial firefighting crews in Los Angeles.

Williamson says pilots have very little downtimeÌęin between shifts, with almost every waking moment devoted to gearing up for the next one. “After a shift you’ll eat and rest and let your mind unravel a bit from what you just went through,” he says. “But even when you’re not on a shift, you’re strategizing with other crew members, trying to make your plan for the next shift to hopefully be even more effective than during the last one.”

Crews must also manage the psychological impact of viewing the destroyed neighborhoods and city centers from the air.

“We see the devastation from a different perspective,” Williamson says. “The images of destruction are seared into your brain. It’s hard to see how far the burn scar extends knowing the loss of property and life that came with it. You can’t dwell on these things while working, though. You have to keep grinding until the job is done.”

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Call me Buzzkill Jill, because I’m about to say something that’s certain to bum out—even tick off—plenty of people, including my mom. Fireworks, that perennial symbol of wholesome family fun, are really bad for the environment and our health.

I can already hear the whining: What’s so bad about a 15-minute pyrotechnics show that brings people joy? To that I’d say two things. First, fireworks do not bring joy to everyone. In fact, they can cause real and others who suffer from PTSD. (Chances are your , too.) Second, all that razzle-dazzle takes a serious toll in the form of wildfires, poor air quality, pollution, and wildlife trauma. Not to mention the fact that in 2022 fireworks sent .

Fireworks Cause Wildfires—Lots of Them

Fireworks sparked an estimated 31,302 fires in 2022 that caused an estimated $109 million in direct property damage, according to Michele Steinberg from the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). More than 85 percent of those were wildfires. In 2017, a 15-year old boy chucked a smoke bomb into a dry riverbed on the Oregon side of the Columbia River Gorge during a fire ban. It sparked the Eagle Creek fire, which ignited 50,000 acres, impacted air quality all the way to Canada, trapped 147 hikers amid the blaze, and took more than three months and $40 million to snuff. The boy who started the blaze was sentenced to 1,920 hours of community service and fined $37 million.

Still, fireworks are legal in all states except Massachusetts, where they were outlawedÌęin 2020. The proliferation of consumer fireworks makes many who work in the fire fighting industry hot under the collar. “The NFPA does not support the use of any consumer fireworks,” says Steinberg. “Professional fireworks shows are safer because the providers have to be licensed and permitted. There’s a lot more control over the usage and first responders and emergency personnel can be at the ready. Consumer fireworks are never safe.”

Safety precautions for professional shows need to be rigorous, too. The late Bill Gabbert, founder of the website Wildfire Today and a fire management officer for the park service, developed a rigorous checklist to determine whether fireworks shows could go on safely at various NPS sites. Organizers had to obtain a Spot Weather Forecast from the National Weather Service, examine wind speed,Ìęand confirm the availability of qualified firefighters, and evaluate the likelihood that a stray ember could igniteÌęa potential fuel source, like a ponderosa pine.

Fireworks Cause Air, Land, and Water Pollution

What goes up must come down. When fireworks explode, they rain down plastic, gun power, heavy metals like lead, copper, cadmium, titanium, and aluminum, and toxic chemicals like . These impact air quality, human health,waterways, and soil.

In a on the impact of fireworks on air quality, climate scientist Dian Seidel found that the 4th of July brings with it a pronounced spike in pollution across the nation. The study, which was co-authored with her student, Abigail Birnbaum, focused on the presence of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5) in the days surrounding Independence Day.

“PM 2.5 is the type of particulate matter that’s most damaging to our health,” says Seidel. “When you breathe dirty air, blow your nose, and see all that nasty dirt, those are larger particles of pollution. But the finer particles that lodge deep in your lungs, the ones that carry heavy metals and other carcinogens that damage cardiovascular and respiratory systems, those are the PM 2.5 particles.”

Seidel’s study, which captured air quality metrics from stations all over the country over multiple years, found an average 42 percent spike in PM 2.5 in the hours following fireworks. The amount of pollution varies depending on the proximity to the fireworks, weather conditions, and the size of the display: Seidel found an increase of several hundred percent at one station close to the launch zone.

“If you watch fireworks close to the launch point, you’ll be exposed to high rates of PM 2.5, especially if you’re downwind,” Seidel says. “This can be quite serious for susceptible people: the young, the old, and anyone with respiratory conditions.”

The health perils are not limited to big professional fireworks shows. Consumer fireworks also , including lead, at even closer ranges.

The chemicals and plastic that fireworks leave behind impact more than just human health. a nonprofit focused on reducing plastics pollution, almost always finds bits of fireworks in their regular trash cleanups, says Marcus Erikson, a researcher for the organization. “Collectively, fireworks add up to a tsunami of pollution in the environment–little plastic cones and stems, half-melted plastic cords, cellophane wrappers. It’s a tragedy of commons,” he says. All those microplastics are toxic on a cellular, genetic, and neurological level for animals, according to aÌę published in Science of the Total Environment.

A 2022 of The River of Thames in England showed an enormous increase in microplastic pollution following the New Year’s Eve firework show.ÌęAnd a U.S. Geological Survey in 2016 found elevated levels of perchlorate in groundwater and soil samples in the area where Mount Rushmore’s annual fireworks show takes place. Perchlorate interferes with the function of the human thyroid gland and also remains in the environment for long periods of time, impacting soil, flora, and fauna.

Fireworks Freak Out Wildlife

If you own a pet, you know how scared they can get when fireworks start popping. The same goes for wildlife.ÌęIn , Professor Bill Bateman of Curtin University studied fireworks’ impact on animals and found both immediate and long-lasting effects. Noise and lights caused short-term fear responses, “like animals leaving an area and then coming back,” he says. There were significant long-termÌę consequences as well. “Disturbances to roosting or nesting animals caused harmful expenditure of energy and in some cases reduced breeding success,” he says. The toxic haze of heavy metals and pollutants also influenced animal health.

“The effects of fireworks were multifarious and profound,” Bateman says. “We were pretty much blown away by the extent of them. Fireworks are not a minor problem. My feeling is that the time of fireworks is over. We need to consider other options, such as drone displays.”

The Case for Drone Fireworks—a Better Way to Celebrate

Heat domes and droughts are the new normal these days, so it might indeed be time to move toward a gentler and just-as-cool way to celebrate. That’s why many cities, like Salt Lake City, Utah; Napa, California; and Nashville, Tennessee have switched from combustible fireworks to drone shows.

Tahoe City, California, dropped fireworks in favor of drones in 2022, following the Caldor fire (started by a bullet strike) which torched overÌę220,000 acres, took more than two months to contain, wreaked havoc on air quality, and forced the evacuation of more than 50,000 people. “It was a terrifying experience,” recalls Katie Biggers, executive director of Tahoe City Downtown Association. “Fire safety, as well as environmental pollution, was the primary driver behind our move away from a combustible 4th of July celebration.”

Tahoe’s 2023 drone fireworks show was a big success with 2,500 people watching from the lakefront and another 100 on boats. The 15-minute showÌęused 300 drones, synched to music which was broadcast on local radio stations.

Biggers says the community loves the new eco-friendlyÌędrone fireworksÌęshow. “Our lake, our surrounding mountains, our wildlife—these are the reasons people live and visit here, so sustainability and stewardship are core values in Tahoe City,” she says. “When you look at the fire danger we’ve lived through here, 4th of July fireworks just don’t make sense.”

“Change can be hard and we had a few people complain that not doing traditional fireworks was unpatriotic,” says Biggers. “But more importantly, we also heard from veterans and members of their families who were thrilled to be able to celebrate together without navigating the fear of getting triggered by the loud explosions.”

Doing right by the planet can make you happier, healthier, and—yes—wealthier. șÚÁÏłÔčÏÍű’s head of sustainability, Kristin Hostetter, explores small lifestyle tweaks that can make a big impact. for her twice monthly newsletter or write to her at climateneutral-ish@outsideinc.com.

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Ever wonder how to build a campfire the right way? I’ve got good news for you. Making a campfire is easy, conditions and experience willing. But you can always craft a better one than your last. Here’s some intel that’ll take your next burn a little further, even if the weather’s bad.

Perfect the Ingredients

Any fire, no matter how you make it, needs three basic things: Fuel, oxygen, and heat. Altering the ratios of those ingredients will change the way in which a fire lights, burns, and lasts.

Take moisture content in wood, for example. Wet wood produces less heat because energy is required to bring the water contained in it to a boil. And a cooler fire produces more smoke. Water extinguishes a fire because it displaces oxygen, so wet wood will also be harder to light.

Likewise, smaller pieces of wood catch fire more easily because they heat up faster, and a higher proportion of their overall mass is on their surface, where the fuel can react with oxygen and combust. Larger pieces last longer because they heat up slower, and more of their mass is below the surface, where there’s little to no oxygen.

And, that oxygen needs to get to and around a piece of wood if it’s going to combust. So, allowing room for airflow will help a fire start and grow. Reducing airflow can help extend the time it takes for wood of a given size to burn up.

Prepare Your Fuel

If you’ve ever tried to start a fire by just holding a lighter to a log, you’ve realized that fuel sources need to start small. And if you’ve watched a pile of twigs burn to ash in a few seconds, you understand that larger, denser fuel burns longer.

Before attempting to start your fire, collect or prepare adequate amounts of tinder, kindling, and larger pieces of wood.

Tinder counts as small, fine, dry material like grasses, wood shavings, or fluffy stuff that is capable of igniting when exposed to the smallest amount of heat, like a spark or lighter flame. This quickly catches fire, but just a quickly burns up. So, you use the initial flames it produces to ignite kindling, which are small, dry pieces of wood, usually about the diameter of a pencil.

Go back to that description of why more surface area helps wood burn easier. Breaking up small twigs, or fracturing them apart with a knife can create splinters and cracks that increase surface area on kindling, helping it ignite more easily.

Kindling produces more heat then tinder, and burns longer, which you then use to ignite logs. You’ll need a few different sizes of wood to grow your fire. I like to start with some that’s about as thick as my thumb, then sticks and split logs about as thick as my wrist, and once a fire is really going, I add stuff as big around as my leg.

Gathering all this into separate piles before lighting your fire means you’ll be able to concentrate on feeding it at just the perfect moment, rather than rushing around trying to find more fuel sources as your fledgling campfire burns out.

Choose a Campfire Style: Tepee, Log Cabin, Star, or Lean-To

Want to make a big fire that will light easily? The tepee method is almost infinitely scalable. Just prop logs up to form a loose cone, starting with kindling, then adding larger fuel as you work upward and outward. Once lit, the fire will naturally propagate through the different sizes of wood, even when your tepee inevitably collapses. Just remember to leave a door so you can insert tinder into the middle, and light it. You also want plenty of gaps so that air can flow through, but make sure your kindling is close enough to your tinder that it catches.

Want a fire that will last a good amount of time, with little to no maintenance? Stacking logs in a square structure reminiscent of a log cabin will progressively burn those logs over a reasonably long period of time, and naturally facilitates airflow into the middle of the structure. Start your cabin fire by building a tepee of tinder and kindling right in the middle.

Want a fire that will burn all night, untended? Building a dense stack of logs, then lighting a tepee on top of it will combust the uppermost fuel, then move downwards as each layer of logs burns up. This platform or upside down fire can be challenging to master, and requires very dry logs, but get that topmost tepee big and hot enough, and you’ll have a source of heat that should burn until it’s completely out of fuel—long enough to cook a gourmet campfire meal.

Want to achieve a long lasting fire a little easier, at the cost of regular maintenance? A classic star fire, as seen in every western movie ever made, arranges logs around a central tepee, with one end in the flames. Scooting those logs inwards as they burn allows you to control how fast, and for how long the fire burns. If you have a dished fire pit or ring, the inward motion of the logs may even be facilitated by gravity.

Once you’ve experimented enough with the techniques above and learned the nuances of campfires, you may come to the same conclusion I did: the easiest, most reliable fire style is a simple lean-to. Just prop up wood over tinder and kindling using a log, rock, or anything else you have handy. Leave some room for air, add more wood as necessary, and don’t overthink things. The principles that make the other types of fire successful—airflow and progressive fuel loading—apply here too, just in a more freeform fashion.

Know How to Put Your Fire Out

Consult the relevant local, state or federal management agency for where you plan to have a fire, and only build one when it’s permitted. Also consult those regulations for any required means of extinguishment. Depending on where you are, you may be required to have a shovel, water container, or bucket of sand available adjacent to that fire.

Piling soil or sand onto a fire cuts off its source of oxygen, putting it out. But, heat can be trapped below the surface, and embers can be blown into nearby fuel sources if left unattended.

Dousing a fire with water also cuts off its oxygen, and ample amounts of water can also eliminate its heat.

No matter which you use, take the time to stir the soil, sand, or water through the fire until it’s cool to the touch, and no telltale strands of smoke remain.

Lighting Your Fire

If a fire is crucial to your enjoyment or survival, then it’s a good idea to take more than once source of ignition. Lighters are obviously convenient, but they can run out of fuel, break, and may not work in cold or wet conditions.

Ferrocerium rods are made from a metal alloy that produces sparks when scraped. They keep working even after you drop them, last through years of use, and work even when wet or cold. But ferro rods also require perfectly prepared tinder if you’re going to be able to take advantage of those sparks. If you carry a ferro rod, you should also carry a source of tinder. My favorite are Vaseline-coated cotton balls. The petroleum jelly protects the fluffy inside from moisture, and helps extend its burn time. You can make these things at home simply by combining a handful of cotton balls with a handful of Vaseline inside a plastic bag, and kneading to combine.

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